The craggy cliffs of Mt. Ishizuchi, Shikoku’s tallest mountain, are draped in heavy iron chains. White-clad practitioners of Shugendō, “the Path of Cultivating Mystic Power,” chant “Namu Amida!” as they scale the chains, their voices mingling with the clinking of iron on rock.
The practice of Shugendō produces some of the most otherworldly and striking images Shikoku and Japan have to offer, with practitioners scaling steep climbs like those at Mt. Ishizuchi, traversing tiny ledges, hanging off cliffs, and building great ritual bonfires at temples and shrines deep in the mountains. But what do yamabushi, practitioners of Shugendō, seek when they go into the mountains? This article introduces some key concepts, figures, and rituals of Shugendō, a uniquely Japanese tradition that embodies the country’s distinctive approach to nature, religion, and life in a mountainous archipelago.
Key Concepts
Shugendō is a category-defying tradition that blends indigenous Shinto beliefs and practices with Buddhist and Taoist ones. Yamabushi, “mountain-prostrators,” believe that submitting themselves to the sacred power of nature at gyōba (places of ascetic practice like the chains at Ishizuchi) allows them to take on some of that divine power, which they then use compassionately on behalf of others when they return to their homes, whether as full-time religious specialists or in their everyday lives as ordinary people. Shugendō spread from Mt. Ōmine in Nara Prefecture and became influential on almost every sacred mountain in Japan, including many of Shikoku’s most famous peaks, such as Mt. Ishizuchi, Mt. Tsurugi, and Mt. Kompira.
Shugendō is a category-defying tradition that blends indigenous Shinto beliefs and practices with Buddhist and Taoist ones. Yamabushi, “mountain-prostrators,” believe that submitting themselves to the sacred power of nature at gyōba (places of ascetic practice like the chains at Ishizuchi) allows them to take on some of that divine power, which they then use compassionately on behalf of others when they return to their homes, whether as full-time religious specialists or in their everyday lives as ordinary people. Shugendō spread from Mt. Ōmine in Nara Prefecture and became influential on almost every sacred mountain in Japan, including many of Shikoku’s most famous peaks, such as Mt. Ishizuchi, Mt. Tsurugi, and Mt. Kompira.
As Shugendō spread and took root in these areas, it developed unique characteristics that reflect the culture and geography of each region. Though Shugendō traditions in Shikoku differ from place to place, they share one feature in common: legends of the tradition’s founder, En no Gyōja (En the Practitioner). En was likely a historical figure who practiced magic and medicine—closely related disciplines in premodern Japan—in the 7th century in what is now Nara Prefecture. Over time, an expanding body of legend grew around this mysterious figure, particularly stories of his travels across Japan “opening” mountains for ascetic practice.
As Shugendō spread and took root in these areas, it developed unique characteristics that reflect the culture and geography of each region. Though Shugendō traditions in Shikoku differ from place to place, they share one feature in common: legends of the tradition’s founder, En no Gyōja (En the Practitioner). En was likely a historical figure who practiced magic and medicine—closely related disciplines in premodern Japan—in the 7th century in what is now Nara Prefecture. Over time, an expanding body of legend grew around this mysterious figure, particularly stories of his travels across Japan “opening” mountains for ascetic practice.
The founding legend of Mt. Ishizuchi is a representative example. Sensing the mountain’s spiritual power, En no Gyōja purified himself in its waterfalls (link to waterfall training article), scaled its unforgiving cliffs, and entered meditation to beg for a Buddha who could guide the people of Japan to salvation. Eventually, the Buddha Amida and his two attendants appeared, but En sensed that these kindly beings were too gentle to save the obstinate Japanese, and he implored them to assume a more suitable wrathful form. In response, Amida transformed into Zao Gongen, a snarling, flame-wreathed deity with one leg raised as though to smash whatever lay below. The other two deities became similarly wrathful attendants, forming what are known as the “Three Manifestations of Mt. Ishizuchi.”
This tale contains many defining elements of Shugendō: Shinto concepts such as purification through water and mountains as a sacred realm; Buddhist elements including meditation and the appearance of the Buddhist deity Amida; and the uniquely Japanese syncretic worldview in which Buddhas take on locally resonant divine forms to meet the needs of the people of the archipelago.
This tale contains many defining elements of Shugendō: Shinto concepts such as purification through water and mountains as a sacred realm; Buddhist elements including meditation and the appearance of the Buddhist deity Amida; and the uniquely Japanese syncretic worldview in which Buddhas take on locally resonant divine forms to meet the needs of the people of the archipelago.
Images of En no Gyōja can be found at many of Shikoku’s mountain temples, where the sage sits on a boulder wearing a cowl and tall, toothed wooden sandals called geta. At some temples, iron sandals are displayed, referencing legends that En donned such heavy footwear when climbing the mountains as an added ascetic practice.
Restriction and Revival
Religious reforms during Japan’s 19th-century modernization saw regional Shinto traditions suppressed in favor of a centralized ritual system, syncretic sacred centers forced to align exclusively with either Shinto or Buddhism, and in 1868, Shugendō was outlawed entirely. Its practitioners were compelled to become either Shinto or Buddhist priests, and many Shugendō rituals were absorbed into those traditions or abandoned altogether. This situation persisted until the end of the Second World War, when Japan adopted a constitution modeled on that of the United States, including a guarantee of freedom of religious expression.
Since then, Shugendō has seen a modest revival, and practitioners clad in characteristic symbolic garb can once again be seen climbing sacred mountains at key times of year, venerating sites and performing rituals once driven from public view.
Since then, Shugendō has seen a modest revival, and practitioners clad in characteristic symbolic garb can once again be seen climbing sacred mountains at key times of year, venerating sites and performing rituals once driven from public view.
Shugendō Immersion in Shikoku
Shikoku, with 70 to 80 percent of its surface covered in steep mountains and surrounded by sea, has long attracted practitioners and pilgrims seeking to immerse themselves in nature’s power through Shugendō. Many practices associated with the tradition, including takigyō and misogi (waterfall purification), goma (fire offerings), and the ascent of sacred mountains, are open to ordinary people under the guidance of experienced specialists.
Shikoku, with 70 to 80 percent of its surface covered in steep mountains and surrounded by sea, has long attracted practitioners and pilgrims seeking to immerse themselves in nature’s power through Shugendō. Many practices associated with the tradition, including takigyō and misogi (waterfall purification), goma (fire offerings), and the ascent of sacred mountains, are open to ordinary people under the guidance of experienced specialists.
For travelers interested in encountering Shugendō in this living context, Shikoku Tours offers carefully guided access to these practices, working with local practitioners and sacred sites to ensure experiences are approached with respect, safety, and cultural understanding. Traveling with an experienced guide allows participants to engage deeply with the mountains and rituals of Shugendō, while focusing fully on the experience itself rather than logistics or uncertainty.
